Gaining an Insight into Alpaca Herd Activity

By Cathy Spalding

Historically, alpacas have never been a wild species. To date, no rogue herd of wild alpacas is known to exist anywhere in the world. It is thought that over the many years, alpaca behavior has adapted itself to a domesticated life with humans.

It is important to gain a basic understanding of the general dynamics of alpaca herd activity, as well as the dynamics specific to any one particular group of alpacas. This understanding can make it much easier to recognize the more subtle cues that may be cause for pause and further investigation. Without it, we have little to no solid foundation upon which to base an assessment. There are many generalities that could be noted as the more common behaviors in any random group of alpacas. There might also be behaviors specific to a particular group. Each group naturally consists of individual alpacas with individual personalities and traits. This unique, and often random, mix can also create behaviors that are specific to a particular herd or grouping.

Most alpacas are very herd oriented. They normally prefer the company of other alpacas as opposed to that of another species. In a mixed herd of suri and huacaya, it is not unusual to find the suri alpacas moving or sleeping together as a group and the huacaya alpacas together as a separate group. While they definitely do well together in a mixed group, it appears they may clearly see a difference. Social interaction is ongoing between individual alpacas and entire groups. Group security and support can even allow for a compromised alpaca to appear "normal."

A single herd or herd groups (as shown) have an intricate social structure. Alpacas have social as well as health and welfare needs. Through observation of body language and various behavioral cues, you may be able to note pieces of the social order in a particular herd. There may be specific family groups, ones who are good friends, some that do not get along well, leaders, followers, guards and even “baby sitters." Mothers teach their babies a great deal about appropriate alpaca behavior, as well as warn them of potential dangers-- including possible humans. Some mothers are very attentive and constantly keep track of their cria. Others are much more casual in their attention and care. The herd will take an active role in raising and disciplining young alpacas. Growing youngsters often receive a quick spit from elders as they learn boundaries and appropriate behavior. Sometimes specific family lines hold a higher or lower place in the herd.

Anytime dynamics in the social structure are changed, there is a period of adjustment and reorganization. Many alpacas will visibly mourn the death of a fellow alpaca and certainly that of their own offspring. Exchanging herd members through buying and selling can be stressful for a herd. It can create momentary difficulties and shifts. Is it possible we have just sold the guard in a particular group and another must step into that role? Have we sold another's close companion? A new alpaca coming into a herd will often struggle for a time as it tries to gain acceptance, make new friends and find its own place within this "new" herd social structure. While it would not seem possible to eliminate these disruptions, it is important to notice any obvious difficulties and to mitigate them where possible. There have been instances wherein a new addition to the herd is not readily accepted, resulting in ill health and even death.

Possibilities For Concern

To consider what may not be usual, we must first have a basic understanding of what is the ongoing norm within a particular group of alpacas. It is important to know the animals, both as a herd and as individuals. What are the usual groupings? Are some close pasture mates while others may not get along well? Are some at one feeding station and never at another? Is anyone a loner? What is the seeming social structure? Who seems to rule the pastures and who might seem to cling to that last rung? What is the usual activity for the alpaca holding those positions and what is the usual activity for those in that range in between?

With a general understanding of the dynamics within any specific herd or group of alpacas, it becomes much more obvious when something may require further investigation. Is one who is not normally a loner now off by himself? Is the herd queen suddenly seen to be weaker, receiving spit from much more neutral herd members and backing away? When moving the herd, is one who is normally out front or in the middle of the group now one of the stragglers? Is the entire herd up and about grazing in the morning sun while one remains kushed in a shelter? A more subtle question: Is the entire herd up grazing and only one is kushed right there amidst the grazing group?

This group of alpacas is grazing in the morning sun with only one member kushed. It is a gorgeous day and the herd has moved all together, out to the pasture. Seeing this positioning from a distance, it might be easy to assume this lone kushed alpaca is simply resting...enjoying the warmth of the sun. She is right there amidst the group. Though her neck is a bit forward and not as upright as would be the norm, she is kushed upright and her ears appear to be resting at half-mast. Might she just be enjoying a lazy summer morning?

In this instance, the strong behavioral cue that something may not he right is that she would be kushed at all when the remainder of the herd is up grazing. This cue is supported by the subtler cue that she is holding her head and neck more forward than the norm. Taking a closer look will help determine whether she is fine or whether there might be a potential problem. As a side note, I have received many calls and letters from alpaca owners around the world who have become aware and acted on this very cue. More often than not, they have discovered a problem. They have expressed sincere appreciation that notice of this specific behavioral cue made it possible to discover an issue in the earlier stages, thus potentially life saving.

Upon closer inspection, this little gal may not be well. Her head and neck are held farther forward than normal for the usual upright kushed position. Her body is somewhat hunched with her legs appearing uncomfortably hugged in beneath her. Notice the outline of her face. The lower lip is clearly pulled back, indicating a tensing of muscles in the face. While shadows make it difficult to tell in the photo, the obvious tensing of facial muscles, indicated by her lower lip, would have likely caused drooping of the eyelids.

An often-repeated phrase throughout the alpaca community is, “Alpacas are very stoic. It seems that by the time they truly show they are ill, they are really ill." As keen observers of alpaca behavior -- the subtle behavioral cues expressed as individuals, as well as in relationship to a herd group -- we add an important dimension to our skills as herd managers, handlers and trainers.

The behavioral cue of only one alpaca kushed while all the other herd members are grazing is quite subtle, yet very significant. Does what we observe or think we observe mean that it is? Perhaps. And then again, perhaps not. What is of serious importance is that we have noticed something and acted upon it. In addition to the notice of specific cues or indicators, it is important to consider the positioning and surrounding circumstances in which any cue is noted. Behavioral cues can mean different things with different animals at different times in combination with different accompanying cues.

About the Author

Cathy Spalding and her family live in Olympia, WA where they enjoy their herd of 18 llamas and alpacas. With over 20 years experience, Cathy has a wealth of expertise in camelid behavior and training. She has written numerous articles, produced publications including the camelid behavioral textbook on CD-ROM, "Llama Talk" and "Alpaca Talk."

All Hay Is Not Created Equal

By Karen Nicholson, Stepping Stone Farm Alpacas, Stowe, VT

You are what you eat. So are our camelids. Since our grazing season is so short and so many farms are raising their animals on either a dry-lot or a pasture that is overgrazed, we rely on hay to feed them. It is important to feed them quality hay or you can end up with thin or unhealthy animals.

In Vermont, hay comes in 1st, 2^nd, and sometimes even 3rd and 4th cuts, depending on the growing season and the weather at cutting times.

First cut hay is coarse with a lot of grasses and doesn't have a lot of legumes, such as alfalfa and clover. It may have quack grass, timothy, and brome. It may be weedy too. It dries quicker.

2nd cut hay is very rich in nutrients and has higher protein. It is greener than the 1st cut. It smells sweeter as well. You have to rake and dry this crop of hay more than the 1st cut because it is heavier and thicker. Also it is more likely to rot or catch fire if baled wet.

3rd cut hay is really, really thick and green. It is rich and has a really sweet smell to it. It has a lot of legumes and less grass, which may be harder to digest. It is more difficult to dry.

Llamas and alpacas typically eat 2nd cut hay, whereas cows, horses and goats usually do well on 1st cut hay.

The best time to evaluate hay is before you buy it. Ideally, you'd want to go out to the field before it is cut and see the plants and the stage they are in. Or you can go once it is cut and on the ground before bailing. But for most of us, summer is our busiest season and we're lucky enough to get the necessary things done and get the hay in the loft. In that case, you can spend some time over the winter evaluating your hay and deciding if your source is worth sticking with.

Here are some quick tips to evaluate your hay:

1. Pick up the bail. – A good bale of hay will sag when you lift it up by the twine. Now drop the bail from at least waist level. It should bounce. If it thuds, it's a dud. Now, cut the twine or wire. The hay should spring out. If the bail had been packed too tightly it has likely trapped moisture, leading to mold growth. 
2. Look at the color. – Now that you have a bale open, look inside and see what color it is. If the outside is bleached from the sun, that's ok. But the hay should have a bright green color inside. This is an indicator that the hay has higher proteins and vitamins. Thumbs down on yellow and brown colored hay. No nutrients translates into sick alpacas.
3. Stickiness. – When you open the bale and pull the leaves apart, do they stick together? Yuck. No good. This is an indicator of mold. Does the bale feel warmer than others? Reject this loser too, and get it out of your loft. It is composting and could ignite.
4. Take a whiff. – Sniff that hay! You know what mold smells like and you can definitely smell it in hay. Quality hay smells sweet and grassy.
5. Work those eyeballs. - Really look at the hay. If you're buying alfalfa, make sure it's leafy with soft stems. In grassy hay, look for seed heads. REJECT! Lots of seed heads are an indication that the grass was cut when it was more mature and has lost protein value and palatability.
6. 'Listen' to your animals. – If you see them refusing a bale, trust that they are doing it for good reason. There can always be a bad bale in a good batch of hay (from the edge of the field, packed too tightly before they adjusted the twine properly, etc). Get rid of it and give them another. If they refuse all the hay (which happened to me one fall), first make sure it is good hay and if the only reason they are refusing it is preference, douse it with a molasses/water mixture to make it more appealing until they adapt to the taste.
7. How was it fertilized. – Ask your hay farmer what he uses for fertilizer on the field and how often. You don't want clumps of manure falling out, making it unappetizing to your animals and possibly carrying parasite eggs with it. Nor do you want hay from a field that has had little or no fertilizer – that will grow nothing but empty food for your animals. Organic fertilizer in the form of composted manure is better than chemical fertilizers.
8. Test it. – Your feed company will often do this at no charge and give you a write up on how much you should supplement your animals with grain, based on the nutrition of your hay and the demands on the animal (pregnancy, lactation, etc). Or you can have it tested by your local university or a private company.
9. Secure good hay for the next year. – If you are satisfied that your hay is of good quality and feeding your animals well, talk to your hay farmer and make sure you can secure hay from that same field next year. If you are not satisfied, begin seeking a new source now. Or consider buying a hayfield, seeding and fertilizing as you want it, and either haying it yourself, or hiring a hay farmer to do it.

Like anything, we can only do our best within the confines of everything we are doing in our lives. Thus, most of us cannot obsess about our hay. If all that time allows for are the first four of the list above, you can get by fine, as long as you monitor your animals for condition and vibrancy and make adjustments accordingly. But if time does allow, finding and securing an excellent hay source is well worth it.

Karen Nicholson, of Stepping Stone Farm Alpacas in Stowe, VT, has a herd of nine alpacas, two French Alpine dairy goats, Indian Runner ducks, broiler chickens and several laying hens all integrated into their farm management program. Any comments or questions can be directed to: stowealpacas@gmail.com.

What's In Your Hay?

By Chris Stull, SELR BoA & Adoption Coordinator, NE PA
Reprinted from the Llama Rescue Review, September 2007

The basics for feeding any llama are hay, salt, and water, with only as much grain as needed for the animal to maintain good body condition. Hay still is the basis for a good feeding program because it usually can satisfy daily maintenance requirements of energy, protein, fiber, vitamins and minerals, however, depending on the quality, hay can vary in its nutritional content. For example, it can contain less than 8 percent or more than 22 percent protein.

Alfalfa hay may provide much more protein than some animals need, whereas, older, yellowed grass hay might not provide enough. Protein is important for bones, muscles and just about everything else, including coat condition. Too little protein will cause a dull coat. Too much won't hurt your animal but will result in higher urine output (wet smelly stalls, increased water needs). For the average llama, probably 8 to 10 percent protein in his daily diet would be plenty. Naturally, lactating, pregnant, or working llamas may have greater requirements.

Hay analysis can be done by a county agent or any university that has an agricultural department. However, this is not always practical. A rule of thumb for testing grass hay is to look at the distance from the stem to the seed head. The longer the stem, the lower the protein. If stems on timothy hay, for instance, are about six to seven inches long, you probably would have a less than 8 percent protein hay product, and you might need to supplement with a higher protein concentrate. If the stems are all nice and short, barely coming out of the blade of grass, then the protein percentage will be higher, and you probably would not need to supplement.

Watch for moldy hay. Any hay can become moldy because of harvesting or storage problems. It can cause respiratory disease and could be toxic to llamas. Usually, llamas won't eat moldy hay, and you'll see a lot of it wasted. Bales that are heavier than those around them may be moldy. Look for discolored patches of brown or white. Also, be sure to take a whiff. You can smell mold. Good hay is always clean, leafy and sweet smelling.

Sometimes hay can be difficult to find, especially after drought conditions. If this is the case, you can substitute forages such as hay cube products or bagged forage, which are pretty good as hay substitutes. Complete beet-pulp-based ratios are not really 100% adequate to replace hay, but can be used. You need to switch slowly. In both cases, expect increased wood-chewing activity. A llama naturally spends 10 to 14 hours a day eating. A diet of only hay cubes or bagged chopped forage and concentrates can be consumed in less than four hours, therefore, these llamas will look elsewhere to chew and may resort to eating toxic weeds. Grass hay tends to be higher in calcium than phosphorous, but the ratio between the two is fairly narrow.

Your feed room should have one closed container for grain, if your animal needs it, with a couple of bags of hay cubes or bagged chopped forage in case your hay is not the best quality. There should be extra loose salt with some electrolytes to replace essential compounds lost during periods of extreme heat. For animals in good condition, that's really all you need. In our last issue I discussed the different types and qualities of hay and hay substitutes. In some cases it may be necessary to supplement your llama's diet with foods other than hay to maintain a proper body mass. Adding fat in moderate amounts is one good way to keep the weight on an animal without feeding a lot of grain. However, if you start going over one cup of vegetable oil or add too much rice bran, which is popular now, you've got to be careful. Vegetable oil has no minerals but may increase the need for vitamin E. Rice bran is high in phosphorous, and you can get into a reverse calcium-to-phosphorous ratio if you feed them too much. When phosphorous intake is higher than calcium, the animal's body tries to stabilize things by leaching the calcium out of his bones. This causes intermittent lameness, and could cause skeletal disorders and fractures. As I mentioned previously, grass hay tends to be higher in calcium than phosphorous. If you add more than about a half pound of rice bran to that, you can push the phosphorous up to a level that would get into the danger zone, especially if you're feeding grain or a bran product that's not fortified with calcium.

If your llama is losing weight or is sluggish, you may need to add grain to his diet, presuming he is not ill or carrying a heavy parasite load. Oats are not a high-energy feed. Either whole or crimped, one pound of oats contains just about the same amount of energy as one pound of excellent quality hay. Corn is a perfectly good feed for most animals, but people have gotten into trouble by not understanding it. A one-pound coffee can filled with corn contains two times the amount of energy as the same amount of oats, and if you suddenly feed the corn in the same amount as you do oats, an animal can get into trouble. Corn is also prone to mold.

There are many concentrate mixes out there that contain a mixture of corn, oats and/or barley with added vitamins and minerals. Choose one from a reputable company that is designed specifically for the animal in mind. Horse feed is not recommended for llamas. Generally the copper content in horse feed is a bit too high for llamas.

The molasses coating on sweet feed breaks down as simple sugar in the bloodstream and sets off a whole chain reaction within the body—the pancreas produces sudden rushes of insulin, which can be damaging to soft tissue and organs with repeated occurrences. If you need to put weight on an animal rapidly, use a dry pelleted feed mixed with plain soaked beet pulp for added calories. The wet beet pulp adds extra fiber and moistens the dry pellets enough to cut down on the risk of choke. Naturally, this should be mixed at each feeding and not in advance as the beet pulp can sour quickly, particularly in the heat.

Llamas also need free-choice minerals specific to their needs, as well as specific to the area in which you live. Lamas need loose minerals, as they cannot lick adequate minerals from blocks. To find out about mineral deficiencies in your area, you can consult the USGS geochemical maps at: http://tin.er.usgs.gov/geochem/doc/averages/countydata.htm.

Keeping Them Warm

By Bev Henry

Camelid Quarterly, March 2009

Many areas of North America are experiencing severe and usual weather conditions, and this past winter was a harsh one. Most of us have some sort of shelter for our llamas to take refuge from the weather. But when sub-zero temperatures are accompanied by winds, a simple shelter, or even unheated barn, may not give enough protection. Deep bedding such as straw will help, but even that may not be adequate for our seniors.

Old llamas tend to have difficulty maintaining their weight at the best of times, with their worn teeth and less efficient digestive systems. Bitter cold weather will drain energy reserves and our faithful companions can drop weight very quickly under such conditions. A simple coat can make a world of difference, and now is a good time to start planning for next winter. There are many good and reasonably priced llama coats on the market, but for those of you who like to create, they are easy and relatively inexpensive to make. You will need:

• About 1.5 yards of 60” wide water repellant outer fabric.
• A single bed size gray wool army blanket or similar.
• About 6.5 yards 1.5” wide webbing and 2 or 3 one-inch Fastex buckles.

Check the outdoor wear section of your local fabric store for suitable fabrics. The remnant table is a good place to look for bolt ends at bargain prices. For the outer shell, you will want a tough and water repellant fabric such as ripstop nylon or Cordura, and those gray army blankets are perfect for liners. Try the army surplus stores and thrift shops for any sort of wool blankets — they don't have to be new. It's a good idea to wash them first, to allow for shrinkage.

The 1.5" polyester webbing is for binding the outside edge, and for tail loop, girth, and chest fasteners. There are several types of synthetic webbing available, but if you can find it, I like the soft polyester webbing rather than the stiffer and less Flexible nylon webbing used for halters.

The best way to custom fit your llama is to use an old sheet for a pattern. But for the average llama, a rough measurement from the base of tail to base of neck plus 12" will be fine. A llama weighing about 325 lbs and about 45" shoulder height with a back length of 38" will need a coat measuring about 50" along the bottom edge from chest to tail end. I use these measurements for a medium size coat. Add or subtract about 2" in overall length for larger or smaller llamas. Depth (top of shoulder to bottom hem of coat) should be 26" or maybe 28" For tall llamas.

Lay out the fabric for the shell, folded in half- the way the fabric came off the bolt and the way it will sit on your llama. Mark the start of the cut for the neck opening about 14" back from the neck edge. Make a second mark about 11" down from the front edge. Cut a smooth curve between these marks for the neck opening. Once you have the shell cut, use it as a pattern for the wool liner.

Lay the two pieces together right sides out and pin & stitch a length of web binding (about 1" ? width) folded over to bind the raw edges. I double stitch this for strength, with the two stitching lines ?” apart.

Or, if you don't want to bother binding the edge, you can just lay the two pieces together, right sides to the inside, and stitch around the edge, leaving a gap to turn the whole thing right side out. Finish with one or two lines of topstitching around the edge.

When I made my first llama coat, I patterned it after a standard horse blanket, with a girth strap, chest straps and straps to go around the hind legs to keep it in place. Llamas, however, are far more agile and flexible than horses, resulting in torn coats and spooked llamas. Being a packer, I then thought of the crupper strap (under the tail) used to hold some packsaddles in place. That worked perfectly.

For the crupper strap, cut a piece of webbing about 20” long, fold in half lengthwise and stitch securely to the tail end of the coat, about 2" down each side from the center fold line. Overlap the webbing onto the coat by a couple of inches to leave plenty of room to secure it.

Velcro fasteners on the chest straps tend to come undone on a very active llama. Better to use one or two Fastex buckles or a metal snap here. For the girth strap (belly band), I used a Fastex buckle as well, together with a slider for adjustment.

Stitch the chest straps to the coat so that the edges of the coat overlap an inch or two for warmth when the buckles are fastened. Check the girth strap for length on your llama before attaching it.

Webbing and Fastex buckles should be available in tack shop or army surplus stores, if you can't find them in your fabric shop. Or check the thrift stores - many kids backpacks are loaded with webbing snaps and buckles that can be re-used.

I do machine wash and dry these coats from time to time, and rejuvenate them with a spray on waterproof product formulate for tents and outdoor use.

Keep safety in mind. Make sure the girth and chest straps are snuggly fastened to lessen the possibility of the llama hooking a toenail in a strap. Unless you are sure the coat is totally waterproof, I would be very cautious about leaving it on for long periods in wet weather. I know from experience as a hiker that a leaky wet coat is a good way to get chilled in a hurry.

Check your barns and paddocks for any places where a coat could get snagged. And do keep a close eye on llamas wearing coats, to ensure their comfort and safety.

Keepin' Cool

By Terry Miller, Snowshoe Farm Alpacas

It seemed as though it would never arrive this year, but summer is finally here! Even though Vermont's temps are usually comfortable for alpacas, we do, on occasion, get those hot and humid days that do not agree with alpacas and llamas. It pays to be prepared to keep your camelids cool.

Shearing, of course, is the first item on the agenda. It's wise to schedule your shearing date well before hot weather arrives. Mid-April to mid-June is generally shearing season in Vermont.

Shade is the next item you should provide for your alpacas. In this part of the country, most of us have barns or shelters for our critters to keep out the elements, so finding shade is usually not a problem. We have overhangs on both long sides of our main barn. The areas under the overhangs provide shade, yet are open to the breeze. They are very popular places for the alpacas to hang out most of the year. Trees in the pasture can also provide a shady refuge.

Cool, clean water should always be available — for drinking, of course, but also for cooling off. Most alpacas also enjoy a pool or sprinkler. We like to use the simple brass ring sprinklers (the plastic version does not stand up well to being stepped on by alpacas). These sprinklers have no sharp edges or moving parts to harm the alpacas that tend to cush on them. Turning on the sprinklers for 10-15 mins at a time throughout the day allows the alpacas to cool off and keeps them out in the pasture grazing when they might otherwise seek out the shade of the barn.

Fans can be a big help, especially on those humid days when the air is sluggish. Large fans that sit or hand at ground level work well to put a breeze where it most helps – the legs and bellies of the alpacas.

Avoid the stress of handling your more skittish alpacas during a heat wave. A relaxed herd will be cooler and more comfortable and will get through extremes of weather with fewer problems.

Animal Health: Fecal Egg Counts (FEC)

By Leona Grearson Bizzozero

This spring I attended a conference on gastrointestinal parasitology hosted by a SARE Research & Education Project to Improve Small (& modified) Ruminant Parasite Control in New England. I am not a veterinarian or vet tech, but like most folks that raise camelids, sheep, goats, and other livestock, it is my mission to ensure that I provide the best possible environment & humane treatment for the animals under my umbrella of care. I partner with my veterinarian team, yet I recognize that camelids remain 'exotic' in North America. Knowledge, understanding, and husbandry techniques continue to evolve within university and professional communities. For example, not all available anthelmintics (anti-parasite drugs) are currently approved for alpacas or llamas. This is problematic for new and seasoned camelid owners alike. To further complicate matters, there are differing views on if, when, and how often to treat alpacas & llamas for internal parasites.

Fecal Sampling

Periodic fecal sampling, including fecal egg counts, will provide information as to types and numbers of parasites present. This information will allow you to review your herd data with your veterinarian to determine the best deworming program, if any, to improve herd health.

Average Cost Per Sample: $5 — $20

I fancy that all camelid owners are smart, savvy, and sensitive. How could we not be? We choose to dedicate time, effort, and means to simply commune with the stoic Zen of alpacas & llamas. So before throwing hands up into the air and exhaling a deep resigning sigh, inform yourself about the parasite loads carried by your herd. Once you have an informed snapshot, then you can make sound decisions on how to reduce the parasite burdens and increase the health & well being of your animals, rather than blindly treating an entire herd for parasites that they may or may not carry. I encourage you to test the poo before you do any gastrointestinal anti-parasite treatments.

Fecal Sampling

A technique that involves examining dung from an individual or a group of animals to determine the number (and/or type) of gastrointestinal parasite present. Fecal sampling will only identify parasites that live in the digestive tract. What does fecal sampling involve?

• Collection of specimen: Fresh manure is collected and should be stored in a clean, air-tight, dry container such as a plastic sandwich bag, mason jar, or the like.
• Collect either from individual animals or from communal dung pile.
• Label each specimen with date, animal name/dung pile location, and your farm name.
• Store sample(s) in cool, dry place (refrigerator) until you can provide to your vet or other testing facility.
• Sample Process & Analysis: A portion is mixed with a solution that causes the eggs to separate & float to the surface.
• The mixture is filtered removing all possible debris and the residual is observed under a microscope where eggs are counted.
• The results are measured as eggs per gram (epg) of dung.

Some owners believe it's a waste of time and money to perform fecal testing. On the contrary, administering chemical dewormers when not warranted is not only a waste of money, time & effort, but may inadvertently develop drug resistance in parasites while lessening the overall effectiveness of available products.

Drug Resistant Parasites?

When an alpaca or llama is exposed to parasites, bacteria, viruses, etc. it will develop specialized cells to fend off infections from the foreign organisms. Some of these cells will produce life long immunity after a single exposure. Other cells may produce immunity for as little as several months. Low level repeated exposure to a foreign organism can stimulate the immune system to continue producing the specialized cells reducing the severity of future infections. Resistance is very common in sheep and goats and increasing in alpacas and Ilamas. The fact is that anti-parasite drugs are unable to completely eliminate an entire population of parasites. The few that remain are resistant to the drug and with time, reproduce creating a new population that is also resistant. Given that indiscriminate use of chemical dewormers, shipping animals, open herds, and inadequate biosecurity only encourage resistance; performing routine fecal sampling will help take the guess work out… To keep costs minimal while obtaining meaningful herd parasite load data, begin your sampling focus during the times of year when worm egg counts increase.

Birthing Times

Worm egg counts will rise during birthing times as females are under stress. Testing at this time of increased egg levels will determine the parasite burden that will be present in the cria fields. Autumn fecal egg counts performed in the fall will yield infection levels from summer grazing and ensure animals are not going into winter with worm counts high enough to adversely affect health & welfare. Anthelmintics should complement but not replace good management and sanitation practices. Camelids are not immune to parasites, but there are practical ways to reduce the need for anti-parasite drugs. As simple as it may sound, practicing sanitary barnyard management strategies, including feed bunkers for hay & grain, eliminating standing water and wet areas around waterers, and routinely removing dung will reduce the favorable environment most parasites need to become infective.

Tips

• Frequent cleanup of the dung piles, effectively planned pasture rotation and grazing multiple species on pastures reduces parasite load while lessening the possible chances of exposure.
• If you are not removing dung piles, especially large seasonal piles, then fence them off to exclude animal exposure for several seasons, allowing the manure to compost.
• Incoming animals are stressed from transportation, new surroundings, and removal from existing herdmates. The stress can cause a mild immunosuppression, causing an increase shedding of parasites or other organisms. When a new animal arrives on your premises, practice quality biosecurity measures by quarantining the animal from all other similar species for thirty days. Utilize distant pens, paddocks, & pastures for all incoming animals to help reduce exposure of the existing herd to new parasite species as well as other diseases. 

Don't Guess… Test!

Further Information: Contact your Vet for fees/services available locally. The Southern Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control provides a variety of guidance for farmers including a guide to egg per gram (epg) counting. You can also visit www.scsrpc.org/SCSRPC/ProdRec/producerinfo.htm. Leona operates Hespe Garden Ranch & Rescue in Washington, VT providing a safe haven for camelids in need while practicing symbiotic agriculture to humanely enhance animal health, happiness and overall yields.

NEONATAL RESUSCITATION CLIENT EDUCATIONAL HANDOUT

DONALD P. THOMPSON, DVM, FAAVA

EMILY K. BOND, DVM

VERMONT INTEGRATIVE VETERINARY ASSOCIATES

2089 Laporte Road, Morrisville, VT 05661

802-888-4201

vtintegrativevet@aol.com

www.vtintegrativevet.com

• Before you begin to assist a mother with the delivery of her cria, be sure to have a sterile 20 or 18 gauge needle handy.
• If you deliver the cria and it is not breathing, insert the needle immediately at the position shown above; the correct insertion site on the newborn cria is on the midpoint of a line connecting the bottom of the nostrils.
• You must forcibly tap the bone with the tip of the needle — if you do not feel bone with the needle, redirect your insertion angle or continue deeper. Bone will be approximately ½ to ¾ inch deep to the skin surface.
• Act as though you are trying to wake the cria with your tapping — you are!!
• If you tap for 5 minutes and the cria does not breathe and you see no visible heartbeat on the chest, the respiratory centers of the cria's brainstem are damaged beyond reasonable help.

The Rabies Vaccine and Other Vaccinations

Compiled by Stephen Hull MS, PhD

Here are some comments from our seminars where we talk about the rabies vaccine and other vaccinations:

1. The rabies vaccine MUST be given by a veterinarian in order for you to have legal protection. In many states (not all), you can buy the rabies vaccine “over the counter" at many farm stores with no prior veterinary prescription. But in the event of rabies exposure, your county health people will NOT recognize your non-vet, self-administered rabies vaccine administration (yes, even with receipts, etc).
2. The older rabies vaccines were known to cause reactions. Even with recent improvements, the rabies vaccine still remains a "hot" vaccine. This means that it has more potential to cause post shot reactions compared to "cold" vaccines (the CD&T combination, for example, is considered a cold vaccine for alpacas/llamas). However, giving a hot vaccine and a cold one within hours can cause more reactions than either given alone. For this reason, never allow your vet to administer the rabies vaccine and a CD&T (or Leptospirosis or West Nile or whatever vaccine) at the same time (unless they want to hang around for an hour afterwards). The vast majority of acute vaccinosis reactions are often apparent, within minutes, of giving the rabies vaccine with another different vaccine. You can always give the other non-rabies vaccine several days later. Always, always watch your animal after giving any vaccine, but always observe after a "hot" vaccine, as sometimes it takes thirty minutes or so for the acute symptoms to flare up.
3. There is no "one recommendation" for the rabies vaccine. Across the country, the rabies exposure risk from wild animals simply varies too much. You must look at your county/state data and make up your mind together with your vet's input. For example, rabies is highly endemic in some areas of the southeast USA, and ills virtually absent in others. One recommendation for all geographical areas is foolish as the rabies vaccine does cause reactions. But in rabies endemic areas, you MUST vaccinate! Your vet will know your area's risk.
4. If your alpaca/llama sees a rabid skunk/raccoon/bat/whatever, its natural curiosity leads it right up to that animal. They often "nose" the animal and resultantly get bit on the nose, lip or legs. Rabid alpacas/llamas can act "furious" (like dogs) or "dumb" (like cows). Not all drool. One symptom of rabies is observing a clearly nocturnal wild animal wandering about in the bright daylight, oblivious to other animals/people. Some infected animals do not show symptoms. For example, skunks carry rabies and do not show symptoms until very late in the disease. In the meantime, they can pass this disease to offspring during pregnancy.
5. When people call me about a wandering and "dazed looking" raccoon/skunk in the daylight, I immediately advise calling animal control, as this is likely rabies. They will likely shoot the rabid looking animal. They will not trap it. In most areas, animal control simply does not have the resources to confirm rabies on every suspected wild animal. If a suspected animal bites a person, then the expensive confirmation test is always done. If animal control cannot get there immediately, then you need to deal with this. Do NOT let this very likely rabid animal wander away to later return and potentially bite one of your livestock, dogs or cats, your neighbor's animals (or you!). I dislike guns, but I have one for this very purpose.
6. Alpacas/llamas get rabies. This is clearly documented. Rabies is spread by saliva and our camelid friends have a way of projecting this. Consider your liability for farm visitors.
7. The only way to confirm rabies is to cut off the suspected animal's head, get a small slice of brain tissue, use specific stains and look for cellular Negri inclusions under the microscope. There is NO other test. If your county suspects rabies in your animal, they have the right to quarantine your animal at your farm, off your farm (at your cost) and sadly (if symptoms persist), to kill your animal. This latter issue is rare but it does happen. Most often, you are told to quarantine your animal on your property (14 to 30 days depending).
8. There are one-year rabies vaccines and three-year rabies vaccines (both under the IMRAB and RABVAC labels) from two different vaccine manufacturers. Each drug company makes their one and three year vaccines from the same specific company batch. The three-year lots are just tested for efficacy at three years and thus cost more due to the longer testing, time, etc. Thus, the three-year tests show that the vaccine works at three years so it can he labeled as such (RABVAC-3 or IMRAB-3).
9. Some states/counties with endemic wildlife rabies insist on rabies vaccination every single year. Many animal health experts feel that this is too frequent for alpacas/llamas. We prefer every three years. The principal reason for the yearly vaccination protocol is to insure that a large percentage of the animal population gets rabies immunizations.
10. There are blood antibodies that can be tested to show that the rabies vaccine protection remains. Several dog/cat studies show that rabies vaccine protection exists for at least five years after injection. Some states/counties will accept blood antibody results and others will not.
11. The use of the rabies vaccine (and every other veterinary drug) for alpacas/llamas is considered a legal "off label" use. Off label means that there is no legal documentation of efficacy. This does NOT mean that the vaccine/drug/treatment does not work; rather, it simply means that in the case of an adverse reaction or lack of protection, there is no legal recourse against the vaccine manufacturer and/or vet. This off-label descriptor is typically a legal issue, not necessarily a pharmacological concern.
12. Rabies vaccination is not just for protection of your pet. Rather, it is a public health issue, as people get rabies from rabid animals (zoonotic disease). This sounds strange, but your vet is actually licensed to protect the public by immunizing/treating animals. This is a legal issue and gets back to the reason why only licensed vets can verify that a rabies vaccine has been properly administered.

I suggest that you print this off, and discuss this with your local vet. He/she has the best perspective for protection of your animals (as well as you!) and, together you must make the decision that is best for your animals in YOUR area.

Drug Expiration Dates: For Real or Just a Suggestion?

By L'illete Vasquez, Reprinted from LANA, Vol. 106, Spring 2010

This question comes up repeatedly, so I asked LANA's representing veterinarian for the Morris Animal Fund. Dr. Tim Thompson of Town & Country Veterinary Clinic (TCVC) in Platteville, CO (tcvc.net) for his thoughts on the validity of drug expiration dates.

"It is difficult to make blanket statements regarding expirations and potency of the products we use, but I will try:

• Hormones and metabolic preps: i.e., HcG, lutalyse, insulin: Should be considered extremely questionable past the expiration date. Do not use.
• Antibiotics: As long as they have not been subjected to abuses in storage—i.e., freezing or extreme heat—are probably close to expected efficacy as long as there is no color change or precipitate. I have found many producers in the past using these products with adequate results. Always check, though, if unexpected results occur: check expiration dates again.
• Other injectables: i.e., Banamine, lasix, etc.: Should follow the same guidelines; however, it is difficult to know how much the product has degraded once expired.
• Vaccines: Should not be used past expiration. Antigen degradation in the case of killed or toxin-derived vaccines and bacterins starts soon after manufacturing; and sometime after expiration, they will stop adequate stimulation of the immune system. Live vaccines and bacterins are even more liable.
• Powders and pills: Can be variable due to oxidation, heat, and humidity. If storage is good, they could potentially last well past expiration. Take it case by case, and watch results closely.

"Even if a product is well within its expiration, it is important to remember that it can still be bad. This is especially true of vaccines. If in doubt, or if you get unexpected results, change products."

LANA Editor's Note: Dr. Thompson makes no recommendations. If in doubt, or if you have any questions, always check with your vet!

First Aid Kits for Camelids

By Kristi Brown, DVM, Reprinted from the LANA News, Fall 2004

I'm sure most of us, hopefully, have a fire extinguisher in our homes, barns, and vehicles, as well as smoke detectors, Band-Aids and antibiotic creams, etc. to protect ourselves and our loved ones in case of an emergency. But how many of you have the same for your four-legged loved ones? Think about emergencies you are likely to face and plan ahead for the things you are likely to encounter when packing your emergency kit.

I have several first aid kits made up and I'd like to share ideas with you to create your own. I have a standard size toolbox (about 8" high and deep and 18" long) in the back of the truck with emergency supplies while we're "on the road." I like to keep the emergency kit in the truck, not the tack box, so that it is available every time the trailer is hooked up, not just when we're headed for a show. I have a friend that uses the small, flip top coolers as an emergency kit — anything small enough to store and carry easily, yet large enough to hold a few essentials will work. Bubble wrap sheets work great to wrap around medicine bottles to prevent breakage and are readily available at most office supply stores, or better yet, reuse the wrap from packages you receive. Ziplock bags work great to protect and organize items in the tack box.

General supplies:

1. Vetwrap — to wrap wounds or support joints.
2. Diapers — these work great to place over wounds, they are very absorbent and won't stick to wounds.
3. 2" PVC pipe — cut lengthwise to use as a splint, cut the pipe as long as will fit in your emergency kit. If you don't have PVC pipe available or can't cut it, the same length of 1" dowel rod will also work — keep 2 pieces of dowel rod in your kit to wrap one on each side of the injured area for support.
4. Duct Tape — the "miracle bandage" — Duct tape can be used to waterproof a bandage, hold a splint, pull the fiber away from a wound, secure a bandage, and any other creative use you can come up with — this will annoy my husband because he is an HVA contractor and thinks duct tape is only for one specific use for his sheet metal projects, not an all purpose item. He obviously finds no humor in the 101 Things to Do with Duct Tape books, either.
5. Contact lens saline solution — this can be used to rinse out an inflamed eye or a wound. Buy the cheap generic bottles and discard them after they are opened.
6. Eye salves — Keep a couple tubes of non-steroidal antibiotic salves in your kit. Again, they are safe for a scratch on the eye or to place on superficial wounds. Do not put cream into deep wounds if you can get to a veterinarian within a couple hours.
7. Antibiotic injectable — consult with your veterinarian for his/her favorite drug for your use. I keep both Penicillin (good for wounds) and LA200 (good for respiratory infections) in my travel kit.
8. Banamine — Banamine is good for colic, inflammation, and pain. Consult your veterinarian for the appropriate dosage and to dispense an appropriate volume of drug for your use.
9. Gastroguard — this product is used to treat ulcers. It is not something to use without your veterinarian's approval, but may be appropriate to use on an animal that is stressed while on the road.
10. Antihistamine injectable — Antihistamines can be used for insect bites, snakebites, allergic conditions and respiratory conditions.
11. Injectable steroid — this should be used only for snakebites, shock or severe allergic reactions — consult your veterinarian for an appropriate drug and dosage.
12. Epinephrine — antidote for drug reactions and insect/snake bites — again, consult your veterinarian.
13. Vegetable oil — a pint of vegetable oil is useful for constipation or colic on the road — vegetable oil has flavor and can be syringed into the animal's mouth and they will swallow it. Mineral oil has no flavor and is easily aspirated. Again, consult your veterinarian for an appropriate dosage.
14. Syringes and needles — a variety pack — I keep an extra ziplock for garbage (used needles/syringes). When I empty the used items, I know exactly what I need to restock the kit with.
15. Hand towels — can use to support an injured leg or to clean a wound.
16. Bottled water — to give animal to drink or to flush a wound, or rehydrate yourself.
17. Betadine or Nolvasan surgical scrub — a small shampoo container of either of these fits nicely into a kit and can be used to clean a wound your veterinarian can possibly still suture a wound if cleaned with these products because tissue residue is not a concern.
18. Birthing Kit extras:
• Bulb syringe (pardon the graphic, but commonly referred to as snot suckers, to clear the nasal passages on crias)
• suture material or dental floss to tie off a bleeding navel
• Oxytocin to help with placenta expulsion or delayed labor, but ONLY on the advise of your veterinarian, and
• a camera to document the event.

This kit fits easily in a vehicle or on a llama pack for use on the trail. You may prefer a backpack or cooler or other container; anything that is easy to grab and run with in an emergency and anything you can easily take on the trail.

Travel safe and see ya on the road!

Kristy Brown started her own veterinary practice, the Leon Valley Veterinary Service, in 1999. The focus of her practice is on camelid medicine, surgery and advanced reproductive techniques and strategies for problem breeders. She has done speaking on the local, state, and national level for both llama producers and veterinarians.

Veterinary Acupuncture and Chiropractic: What, When, And Who?

By Ed Boldt, Jr., DVM, Reprinted from Miniature Donkey Talk 

The use of "complementary" therapies continues to increase in veterinary practice. While there are myriad modalities that fall within this broad term, the two most utilized are veterinary acupuncture and chiropractic (sometimes referred to as manual therapy). It is felt that as more of the population turn to complementary therapies for their own health care, those individuals then seek out such therapies for their animals. It should be stressed that the term "complementary" is the correct term for the use of veterinary acupuncture and chiropractic. These therapies complement our conventional/routine veterinary care. They are an adjunct, not a replacement.

This demonstration is intended to inform you of what veterinary acupuncture and chiropractic are, when they may be utilized to help your horse, and who you should look to for these services.

What are acupuncture and chiropractic therapies?

Acupuncture involves the insertion of a needle through the skin at predetermined sites (acupuncture points) for the treatment or prevention of disease, including pain. Acupuncture is only one of the therapies that come under the heading of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). The other TCM therapy most often used in veterinary medicine is herbal therapy, using Chinese herbs and herbal compounds.

Besides the use of solid, typically stainless steel needles, other means of stimulating the acupuncture points can be used. The effects of acupuncture therapy cannot be explained in terms of a single mechanism, but rather a series of interactions between the nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system. Anatomical examination of classical acupuncture points has shown that most of the acupuncture points are associated with certain anatomic structures of the nervous system. Acupuncture needling causes micro trauma that in turn causes a local inflammatory effect. This inflammatory effect results in an increased local tissue immune response, improved local tissue blood flow, and muscle and tissue relaxation. Some acupuncture points are known as "trigger points." These are tender areas found in skeletal muscle associated with a tight band or knot in the muscle. The principle trigger points in a muscle are located at its center in the motor endplate zone. This is where the nerve ends in a muscle and causes the muscle to contract. Besides using acupuncture points for treatment purposes, reactivity of acupuncture points can aid in diagnosis. When palpated, these points might show some sensitivity if there is a problem at that point, or with the acupuncture meridian or pathway that is associated with the point.

Chiropractic care focuses on the health and proper function of the spinal column, however, the pelvis, limbs, and head are also considered. Chiropractic uses controlled forces applied to specific joints or anatomic regions to cause a therapeutic response due to induced changes in joint structures, muscle function and neurological reflexes. The common principle in all chiropractic theory is that joint dysfunction affects the normal neurological balance found in healthy individuals. The spinal column should be considered from the standpoint of a "motor unit." This consists of two adjacent vertebrae and all their associated soft tissue structures — muscles and ligaments, nerves, blood vessels, and all the contents of the intervertebral space. Any disruption to the normal function of the motor unit is defined as a "vertebral subluxation complex." Adjustments are then done to correct this disruption and restore normal joint motion. From a chiropractic standpoint, there is no "bone out of place."

Acupuncture techniques

Dry Needling

This is the use of the typical "Chinese" or acupuncture needle. The needle consists of a solid shaft with a handle. Needles vary in length (0.5 to 6 inches) and diameter (0.25 mm to 0.75 mm). The smaller needles are used in the lower limbs, feet, head and ear, while the larger needles are commonly used in the neck, back, and upper limbs. The needles may be disposable or reusable via sterilization. Needles with wire handles are used for moxibustion (described below). Most disposable needles now have plastic handles. They may or may not come with an insertion tube that aids in placing the needle through the skin.

Aquapuncture

This is the injection of a fluid into the acupuncture point. While initially treating the point with acupuncture (needle being placed through the skin into the point), this process also leaves behind a liquid that continues to stimulate/treat the point with pressure (due to displacement of tissue by the fluid) and/or irritation over a period of time as it is absorbed. The most commonly used fluid is Vitamin B-12. Some veterinarians who are acupuncturists may inject medications into an acupuncture point to try to combine the effect of both the acupuncture and the medication. This is done with antibiotics and hormonal medications, as well as with homeopathic solutions such as Zeel and Traumeel. Trigger points and "ashi" points may also be injected. I typically use 25 gauge, 1.5 inch hypodermic needles, but for some points, 3 to 6 inch spinal needles may be used.

Electrostimulation/Electroacupuncture

This procedure involves attaching electrodes to the acupuncture needles and applying a pulsating electrical current to them. Stimulation can be achieved by varying the frequency, intensity and type of electronic pulse used on the acupuncture points. Research has shown that there are varying physiological responses to different types and frequencies of electronic pulses applied to acupuncture points. I utilize electroacupuncture primarily for neurological conditions such as facial nerve and radial nerve paralysis, and for non-responsive pain, especially in the lumbar area.

Moxibustion

This involves the burning of an herb either on an acupuncture point (direct moxibustion) in order to stimulate that point. The herb used (Artemisia vulgaris) is commonly called "mugwort." In horses, the most commonly used technique is "indirect moxibustion." Indirect moxibustion is done by holding a burning moxa stick 1/2 to 1 inch above the acupuncture point or by attaching a moxa to an acupuncture needle allowing the heat to be transferred down the needle into the acupuncture point. It is mostly used to treat chronic muscular and arthritic pain. It has also been used on lower back points when treating equine reproductive disorders and for use around chronic wounds to promote healing.

Hemoacupuncture

This is a procedure whereby the acupuncture point is bled with a hypodermic needle using a technique similar to the one in humans where a finger is pricked for a blood sample. It is most commonly used in the treatment of acupuncture points in the coronary band area ("Ting Point Therapy") and other points on the extremities (head, legs, tail). There are TCM implications as to the characteristics of the blood that comes out. I mainly use Hemoacupuncture with cases of laminities and as a distal treatment.

Cold Laser/Infra-red (IR) Stimulator

These units can be useful in stimulating acupuncture points that are difficult to treat any other way. In the equine, this is most commonly seen in the treatment of points on the extremities (head, legs). Caution should be taken with the use of lasers as damage to the eye can occur. The use of Infrared Stimulators such as the CEFCO model can be safely used for eye conditions and is especially useful with corneal ulcers.

Equine Acupuncture and Chiropractic Exam — What's Going On

As with any examination, I begin by getting a history on the horse. I especially want to know exactly what the horse is used for and at what level (weekend rodeos vs. PRCA; training level dressage vs. Prix St. George; occasional riding vs. full-time training, etc.). I then ask the handler to walk the horse in a straight line away and back. I want to watch how the horse tracks, as well as how the horse carries its head and neck, and how the pelvis moves. Does the horse carry its tail to the side? Does on hip move higher than the other one? Is there a "hunter's bump" or high tuber sacrale? I then begin examining the horse on the left (near) side at the head and work my way to the tail. I palpate acupuncture points along the meridians (channels) and will do chiropractic motion palpation as I go along. I will then do the right (off) side in exactly the same manner. I check for any sensitivity at certain acupuncture points that can aid in suggesting other areas of the horse to examine. I motion palpate the horse to check for any decrease in the range of motion and flexibility of the spine and pelvis, and for any sensitivity to the motion palpation. At this time, if I feel I need to see the horse move either on a lunge line or with a rider up, I have that done. I may then re-examine the horse to see if there is any change in either acupuncture point reactivity or motion palpation. If I need to examine the horse with hoof testers or do flexion exams I will do that. Once I have determined which acupuncture points are reactive, and what areas show decreased motion, I will then discuss with the owner my findings. We discuss if further conventional diagnostics are needed and treatment options. If we agree that acupuncture and chiropractic treatment are warranted, I then begin to actually treat the horse. If we agree that conventional diagnostics or treatments are needed, I refer the owner back to their routine veterinarian.

For information on veterinary acupuncture and veterinary chiropractic contact:

The International Veterinary Acupuncture Society

PO Box 271395, Fort Collins, CO 80527

(970) 266-0666

(970) 266-0777 (fax)

office@ivas.org, www.ivas.org

The American Veterinary Chiropractic Association

442154 E 140th Rd., Bluejacket, OK 74333

(918) 784-2231

(918) 784-2675 fax

www.animalchiropractic.org