Clothing Moth Facts

Reprinted from the Flowerdepotstore.com

• The favorite fabric of the Clothing moth is wool but it has also been known to feed on many types of fabric including Silk, Cashmere, and even Fur. So be sure to protect your woven fabrics, sweaters, socks, gloves, linings of boots, fabric pieces, drapes, curtains and throws.
• Remove any stains from garments as soon as possible. Stains attract moths. Avoid spray perfume or cologne on your wool garments and knits. Perfume and cologne are best when applied directly to skin or cotton garments.
• Vacuum your home and closets regularly and remove the contents of the bag. Vacuuming is one of the best ways to rid your home of all types of pests including moths, but the debris in the bag may contain Moth eggs and larvae, so be sure to remove it form your home after cleaning.
• Dry clean your clothing regularly to kill any new egg deposits. Wool garments and accessories are best stored in airtight drawers or containers that include moth protection of some type, such as; Lavender, Cedar, Herbal Sachets or Prozap Strips ion closets.
• Hanging Herbal Moth Sachets from hangers that have your Moth-Favorite garments, or store in cedar lined closets and chests. 

Moth News Update

Reprinted from The Flower Depot

What Are Moths?

At The Depot, we receive dozens of calls each month from individuals searching for information on how to get rid of flying insects, most notably flying moths, in their homes and businesses. The moths are seen in and around their pantries, wild bird food, pet food and clothes closets. Many report seeing moths around dried flower arrangements and in dried flowers in storage.

The moths the callers are describing are almost always Indian Meal Moths. But the moths they see are only the tip of the iceberg. It's the larvae (worms) of these moths that are responsible for the destruction of everything they infest. Damage is caused by the larvae spinning silken threads as they feed and craw, webbing food particles together. Besides infesting all cereal food products and whole grains, larvae also feed on a wide variety of foods such as dried fruits, powdered milk, cornmeal, flour, raisins, prunes, nuts, chocolate, candies, health food and seeds, birdseed, dog and cat food, fish food, and pasta. In addition, dried flowers used in wreaths and arrangements are a source of food the larvae find attractive.

Sometimes mistaken as clothes moths, homeowners first notice small moths flying in a zigzag pattern around kitchens, pantries and other rooms in the home. Occasionally, the larvae or "white worms with black heads" crawl up walls and suspend from the cling attached to a single silken thread. Other times, larvae are found in a food package along with unsightly webbing. It is repulsive to the homeowner and costly to the manufacturer. Packages of whole wheat, flour, and corn meal are often infested. Some moths do fly into buildings during summer months through open doors or windows, but most "hitchhike" inside packaged goods and groceries. Not only homes, but restaurants, grocery stores, warehouses, pet stores and stores that sell wild bird feed or dried flowers can become infested.

How to Avoid Moths

To be certain, you want to avoid having a moth infestation. Avoiding this problem is easy, inexpensive and effective, and boils down to one word: PREVENTION. That's right, taking steps now to prevent a problem in the first place will save you a lot of time, money and grief. It is MUCH more difficult to get rid of an infestation than preventing one in the first place. Prevention starts with education, and anticipation that a future problem could occur. By taking a few simple preventive measures, you are unlikely to experience an infestation of moths.

Kitchens and pantries: Keep stores foods such as cereal, grains, nuts, cornmeal and pasta in sealed containers. Even in sealed containers these products can become infested because Indian Meal Moth eggs may have been present in the product at the time it was purchased. Containers and packages of stored food should be inspected periodically, at least every month or so. Any food that appears to have signs of webbing should be discarded immediately. Purchase foods that are seldom used in small quantities to prevent long storage periods of a month or more. Susceptible material stored for six months or more, especially during hot summer months, has the possibility of developing into serious infestations. Highly susceptible foods, such as spices, can be kept in the refrigerator, and other foods in the freezer. Always use older packages first, and inspect frequently to avoid any spillage, which might attract insects.

Pet food and birdseed should also be stored in airtight containers and regularly inspected for signs of moth infestation. Discard any product that shows signs of infestation.

Moth Detective

Thoroughly inspect wild bird feed and pet food at the time of purchase. Some food becomes matted with silken webbing. The larval stage is the feeding or "pest stage." In stored grains, feeding is done at the surface. In bulky materials, stored in boxes, feeding may be done from the bottom of the box. When ready to pupate, mature larvae leave their spun, tunnel-like case of frass and silk, then spin a silken cocoon. You should also be looking for fecal matter, which may appear to be gritty particles of dust that is often the same color as the infested product. To inspect bulky materials such as dried flowers, gently life the flowers out of the storage or shipping box and carefully inspect the debris in the bottom of the box. Under the bright light, it is helpful to use a small magnifying glass to do a thorough inspection; you should also be looking for live adult moths and their larvae.

Pheromone Traps

Another very important preventive measure is the use of pheromone traps. Pheromone traps are used for inspection, monitoring, and pinpointing infestations of adult Indian Meal moths. Insects use pheromones to communicate with each other, and are natural compounds created in the insect body. Many have been isolated in the laboratory and are now used to lure insects into sticky traps. Adult moths live only five to seven days with their major function to reproduce. Male moths are attracted to a pheromone scent (sex-attractant). Traps can be located indoors next to the ceiling, behind shelves, etc. to capture moths on a sticky surface.

Clothing Moths

Non-toxic, odorless trap that attracts and captures Clothing Moths. Traps use a special Clothing Moth Pheromone that will draw male moths into the sticky inner trapping surface. Each package contains two Clothing Moth traps and lasts for two months.

Foggers

Foggers automatically "release' all of their contents at once, creating a dense fog of insecticide that fills the air and settles on virtually everything that is exposed to. They are best used for instant knock down of moths as well as cockroaches, fleas and many other insects. A complete selection of foggers are available to provide instant knock-down of moths. Foggers are effective for many situations.

How to Identify Moths

The Indian Meal moths have four life stages: egg, larva, pupae and adult. Eggs are ovoid, .5 millimeters in diameter and whitish, or yellowish-white. Pupae are contained within silken cocoons. Newly formed pupae are yellowish-brown. Moths are 5 to 10 millimeters in length with a wingspread of 16 millimeters. Upon emergence, moths are very colorful (head and thorax are reddish-brown; abdomen grayish-brown; front one-third of fore wings is silvery-white or gray).

Life Cycle

Indian Meal moths are sexually mature and capable of mating immediately after they emerge from pupae. Female moths live up to 2 weeks and are capable of depositing up to 400 eggs each. Eggs are deposited singly or in clumps on or near potential food sources. Newly emerged larvae begin feeding immediately. There are 5 to 7 larval stages. Mature larvae either pupate where they are feeding or wander about before selecting a hidden or protected site (crack or crevice) in which to prepare silken cocoons within which they pupate.

Under indoor conditions, where temperatures are "comfortable,” Indian Meal moths are capable of continual development. With ideal temperatures and relative humidity (86 degrees F and 60 percent, respectively), development from egg to adult requires 3 to 4 weeks. In indoor situations, 7 and 8 generations per year have been reported by various authors.

How to Get Rid of Moths

Be sure to read and follow all instructions on the label of all pesticides.

If you see moths flying around inside your home or business and you think you may have an infestation, you should take immediate steps to get rid of the moths. First, find the source of the problem. Locate the food source where moth larevae is presently feeding. In home kitchens and pantries, carefully examine all packaged food items mentioned earlier, both opened and unopened. Often unopened food contains moth eggs at the time of purchase. Inspect all cracks and crevices in pantry cabinets and shelves, including the shelf bracket holes drilled inside of wood cabinets. Often the larvae will seek out those kinds of places to pupate.

Discard any and all foods where signs of moths or larvae are present. Remove all items from the cabinet or pantry. Vacuum the surfaces of shelves, walls and floors. Pay special attention to cracks and crevices, no matter how large or small. Thoroughly wash all containers that will be reused. Place pheromone traps in pantry, and throughout house. The traps will help you locate additional infestations. The same steps should be used for areas where pet food or wild birdseeds are stored.

Place "Insect Guard" pest strips where appropriate. Pest strips emit a vapor that will kill adult moths and their larvae.

What is a Pest Strip?

An Insect Guard pest strip is an insecticide impregnated plastic strip, housed in a white plastic cage. It is not a sticky type trap. An Insect Guard pest strip is an insecticide.

Do Pest Strips Have a Strong Odor?

There is no strong chemical odor associated with pest strips. They do have a slight sweet smell if you are very close to them.

Are Pest Strips Messy or Hard to Use?

Insect Guard strips are not messy and they are very easy to use. Just remove the strip from its foil wrapping and hang the strip where you want to kill and eliminate moths, flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches or silverfish.

Do Pest Strips Really Work?

Yes. Insect Guard pest strips kill adult moths and their larvae.

Where Can Insect Guard Strips be Used?

Closets, wardrobes, and storage spaces. Insect Guard pest strips also protect clothes from moths and leave no smell. Garbage cans and dumpsters to control flies. Animal buildings--controls flies, mosquitoes, and gnats in horse barns and dog kennels.

How Long Do Pest Strips Last?

Once an Insect Guard strip is removed from its foil wrapping it will continue to be effec-tive for at least 4 months, and if unopened, will retain effectiveness for several years.

Pest Problems and Fiber Storage

An excerpt from “The  Spinner's Companion" by Bobbie Irwin

Mildew

• Warmth and humidity promote mildew (fungus)
• Mildew primarily affects cellulose fibers, especially cotton; some fibers are only susceptible when damp.
• Mildew is rarely a problem with protein fibers unless they are stored damp.

Bacteria

• Bacteria primarily affect cotton and can affect fiber subjected to prolonged dampness.
• Silk is relatively bacteria resistant, but can rot if subjected to prolonged dampness.

Insects - Incidental Damage

• Clothes moth larvae will eat through cellulose and synthetic fibers to get to the protein fiber they want to consume.
• Insects may feed on the finishes of some fabrics or yarn, especially sizing (starch).

Insects - Direct Damage

• Crickets, silverfish, roaches, and termites may chew fabrics or fibers, but not as a primary food source; some are attracted to starch.
• Silverfish and firebrats look similar, but firebrats are speckled and have longer appendages. Both prefer dark places. Silverfish prefer warmth and dampness, and firebrats seek heat. Immature silverfish and firebrats resemble the adults, only smaller.
• Clothes moths (family Tineidae) are small (1/2 inch) and tan. Adult moths do not eat fiber; only larvae eat fiber. Females are relatively sedentary; most of the moths you see flying around are males. Cloth moths are not attracted to light.
• A female moth lays 100-200 eggs at a time; eggs laid directly on fiber, yarn or fabric are tiny, pearly ovals that hatch within one to three weeks.
• Clothes moth larvae seek the protein keratin found in animal fibers (wool, hair) as well as leather, skin, horn and feathers. They may stay in the larvae state for six weeks to almost three years (warm, humid weather promotes their development).
• The larvae are very small, off-white naked caterpillars with dark heads that eat holes in animal fibers, yarn, and fabric. They will eat the protein fiber in a blend.
• Carpet beetles (genus Anthbrenus and others) are small (less than 1/2 inch), hard-shelled beetles, mottled or black. Females lay eggs in dark, dusty places, including carpets and crevices of upholstered furniture. Adults do not normally damage fiber or fabric.
• Carpet beetle larvae are broad, small (1/4 inch) bristly, and stay in the larval state up to several years. They eat protein fiber, including silk.
• Moths and carpet beetles prefer darkness, dirt, and cramped conditions.

Detecting Insect Infestations

• Even if insects are not present, you can tell if they've been in your fiber or yarn.
• If you see adult insects, inspect your fiber/yarn/fabric for damage.
• Insects chew holes in fabric and cut through yarn or fiber.
• Small, scattered holes are typical of moth damage.
• Carpet beetles leave large holes.
• Cloths moths leave behind a mass of cobweb-like threads or silky tubes, mixed with fecal debris. Carpet beetles do not leave debris.
• Be alert for egg clusters.
• Inspect fiber, yarn, and fabric frequently. Untwist yarns skeins periodically.
• If you find damaged fiber or active infestation, destroy all pests and eggs, and sort the rest of the fiber. Unaffected areas may still be used, but it's a good idea to freeze or wash the good fiber even if it has been washed before.

Remedies

Chemical Controls

• Mothballs and crystals containing paradichlorobenzene (PDB) or naphthalene evaporate to form fumes that kill larval and adult insects and may also repel them. They are effective only in closed areas where the vapors can't dissipate, and they are toxic to humans. PDB is probably carcinogenic.
• Chemicals such as Eulan*, Edolan*, and Mitin*, designed for industrial use, make fibers permanently unpalatable to insect larvae. They are not safe for home application.
• Dry cleaning solvents kill insects but are too toxic for home use.
• Most home and garden insecticides that kill insects are not recommended for use on fiber or fabric.
• Boric acid (2-4%) combined with imidazole (1%) provides moth protection that persists through dry cleaning but not washing. 

Natural Controls

Physical Methods

• Submersing fiber, yarn, or fabric completely under water for at least 12 hours will kill larvae and eggs.
• Freezing fiber, yarn, or fabric for several days at OF/ -17.7C kills larvae, eggs and adults.
• Heat above 106F/ 41C for four hours kills moth eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults. Excessive heat may damage fiber (e.g. prolonged exposure of fiber to sunlight while it's sealed in a plastic bag is not recommended.)
• Fiber-damaging insects dislike light and may leave the fiber source if exposed to strong sunlight and air for a few hours. Prolonged exposure to sunlight damages fiber.
• Flypaper and other sticky traps are effective. Soak cotton balls in fish oil and attach them to the flypaper to help attract insects.
• Layer fiber between sheets of printed newspaper or brown (Kraft) paper. Newspaper ink may have some repellent effect (although the new soy-based inks are said to be less effective), and brown paper is a physical barrier that the larvae won't eat. Acids from the paper will eventually damage fiber, however.

Biological Controls

• The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) attacks moth larvae of all types and may be effective against clothes moths. 

Herbal Controls

Insecticides

• 'Natural' does not always mean `safe'- some plants and plant extracts, such as concentrated nicotine, kill insects, but are also very toxic to humans and are unsafe for home use.
• Effective herbal insecticides which are relatively safe include Rotenone and Pyrethrin.
• Insecticidal soaps are safe, but their effectiveness on clothes moth or beetle larvae have not been reported.

Repellents

• Some strong-smelling herbs may mask the sulfur scent that attracts moths and beetles to fiber food sources. Essential oils are highly concentrated and should be handled with care; many will kill insects as well as repel them. Soaps scented with herbs make effective sachets. Dried plant material from the following sources, alone or combined, may deter pests, especially in confined areas where the vapors are concentrated: Balsam Fir, Bay, Camphor Basil, Cedar, Cinnamon, Cloves, Geranium (scented), Lavender, Wormwood, Painted Daisy (Prethrum), Pennyroyal, Rosemary, Southernwood, Sweet Marjoram, Sweet Woodruff, Tansy, Tarragon.
• Raw plant material including wood (such as cedar) releases acids that can hasten the deterioration of fiber and fabric; avoid direct contact and prolonged exposure.
• Not all strong-smelling plants repel insects; clothes moths are attracted to some of them. The following are not considered effective: Allspice, Angelica Root, Black Pepper, Cayenne Pepper, Ginger, Hellebore, Horseradish, Eucalyptus, Red Cedar Leaves.
• Citronella and camphor are effective repellents derived from plant sources. Camphor is poisonous, but less so than chemical mothballs.

Prevention

• Carefully examine all new fiber for evidence of insect infestation; destroy affected fiber. Keds (sheep ticks) that are obviously dead will not harm your fiber, but since some ticks spread disease, don't handle them with your bare hands.
• Skirt fleeces well and discard dirty, matted areas that won't wash clean.
• Clean fleeces and textiles thoroughly before storing them.
• Spin fresh fiber whenever possible and avoid keeping fiber over long time periods.
• Avoid compressing fiber.
• Inspect fiber periodically and allow it to air in the sunshine.
• Vacuum crevices, carpets, and upholstery regularly.
• Check the underside of rugs and the back side of wall textiles.

Storage

• Clean fiber, yarn, and textiles thoroughly before storage.
• Fiber, yarn, and textiles must be completely dry before storage. Wool may feel dry even though it holds some moisture, so don't store it for several days after you wash it. In a humid climate it will absorb some moisture from the atmosphere, but that is probably safe.
• Ideal storage temperature is 65- 68F, relative humidity 45-50%.
• Avoid direct contact with unfinished wood.
• Place insect repellent in cloth bags, out of direct contact with fiber, yarn, or textiles.
• Avoid contact with polyvinyl chloride plastic (PVC), use inert plastics labeled acid-free or "archival". Safe containers include those made of polyethylene, polyester, and polypropylene.
• Paper or cardboard in long-term contact with fiber, yarn, or textiles must be acid free.
• Avoid compressing fiber; allow it to breath.
• Store protein fibers in indirect, low light to discourage insects.
• Store cellulose fibers in dark places to protect from sunlight.
• Use sealed bags and containers to create a barrier to insects and make repellents more effective. Plastic storage boxes are good, especially in regions with low humidity.
• Clean fiber, yarn, and textiles that are hung in airy, open spaces rarely attract insects.
• Air fiber, yarn, and fabrics and check for pests every few months.

This article is an excerpt from The Spinners Companion, by Bobbie Irwin, a quick reference guide designed for both beginners and experienced spinners. For more information on Bobbies work, you can contact her at irwin@rmi.net.

(Editor's note: I found this article in the Camelid Quarterly, September 2005)

Keepin' Cool

By Terry Miller, Snowshoe Farm Alpacas

It seemed as though it would never arrive this year, but summer is finally here! Even though Vermont's temps are usually comfortable for alpacas, we do, on occasion, get those hot and humid days that do not agree with alpacas and llamas. It pays to be prepared to keep your camelids cool.

Shearing, of course, is the first item on the agenda. It's wise to schedule your shearing date well before hot weather arrives. Mid-April to mid-June is generally shearing season in Vermont.

Shade is the next item you should provide for your alpacas. In this part of the country, most of us have barns or shelters for our critters to keep out the elements, so finding shade is usually not a problem. We have overhangs on both long sides of our main barn. The areas under the overhangs provide shade, yet are open to the breeze. They are very popular places for the alpacas to hang out most of the year. Trees in the pasture can also provide a shady refuge.

Cool, clean water should always be available — for drinking, of course, but also for cooling off. Most alpacas also enjoy a pool or sprinkler. We like to use the simple brass ring sprinklers (the plastic version does not stand up well to being stepped on by alpacas). These sprinklers have no sharp edges or moving parts to harm the alpacas that tend to cush on them. Turning on the sprinklers for 10-15 mins at a time throughout the day allows the alpacas to cool off and keeps them out in the pasture grazing when they might otherwise seek out the shade of the barn.

Fans can be a big help, especially on those humid days when the air is sluggish. Large fans that sit or hand at ground level work well to put a breeze where it most helps – the legs and bellies of the alpacas.

Avoid the stress of handling your more skittish alpacas during a heat wave. A relaxed herd will be cooler and more comfortable and will get through extremes of weather with fewer problems.

The Rabies Vaccine and Other Vaccinations

Compiled by Stephen Hull MS, PhD

Here are some comments from our seminars where we talk about the rabies vaccine and other vaccinations:

1. The rabies vaccine MUST be given by a veterinarian in order for you to have legal protection. In many states (not all), you can buy the rabies vaccine “over the counter" at many farm stores with no prior veterinary prescription. But in the event of rabies exposure, your county health people will NOT recognize your non-vet, self-administered rabies vaccine administration (yes, even with receipts, etc).
2. The older rabies vaccines were known to cause reactions. Even with recent improvements, the rabies vaccine still remains a "hot" vaccine. This means that it has more potential to cause post shot reactions compared to "cold" vaccines (the CD&T combination, for example, is considered a cold vaccine for alpacas/llamas). However, giving a hot vaccine and a cold one within hours can cause more reactions than either given alone. For this reason, never allow your vet to administer the rabies vaccine and a CD&T (or Leptospirosis or West Nile or whatever vaccine) at the same time (unless they want to hang around for an hour afterwards). The vast majority of acute vaccinosis reactions are often apparent, within minutes, of giving the rabies vaccine with another different vaccine. You can always give the other non-rabies vaccine several days later. Always, always watch your animal after giving any vaccine, but always observe after a "hot" vaccine, as sometimes it takes thirty minutes or so for the acute symptoms to flare up.
3. There is no "one recommendation" for the rabies vaccine. Across the country, the rabies exposure risk from wild animals simply varies too much. You must look at your county/state data and make up your mind together with your vet's input. For example, rabies is highly endemic in some areas of the southeast USA, and ills virtually absent in others. One recommendation for all geographical areas is foolish as the rabies vaccine does cause reactions. But in rabies endemic areas, you MUST vaccinate! Your vet will know your area's risk.
4. If your alpaca/llama sees a rabid skunk/raccoon/bat/whatever, its natural curiosity leads it right up to that animal. They often "nose" the animal and resultantly get bit on the nose, lip or legs. Rabid alpacas/llamas can act "furious" (like dogs) or "dumb" (like cows). Not all drool. One symptom of rabies is observing a clearly nocturnal wild animal wandering about in the bright daylight, oblivious to other animals/people. Some infected animals do not show symptoms. For example, skunks carry rabies and do not show symptoms until very late in the disease. In the meantime, they can pass this disease to offspring during pregnancy.
5. When people call me about a wandering and "dazed looking" raccoon/skunk in the daylight, I immediately advise calling animal control, as this is likely rabies. They will likely shoot the rabid looking animal. They will not trap it. In most areas, animal control simply does not have the resources to confirm rabies on every suspected wild animal. If a suspected animal bites a person, then the expensive confirmation test is always done. If animal control cannot get there immediately, then you need to deal with this. Do NOT let this very likely rabid animal wander away to later return and potentially bite one of your livestock, dogs or cats, your neighbor's animals (or you!). I dislike guns, but I have one for this very purpose.
6. Alpacas/llamas get rabies. This is clearly documented. Rabies is spread by saliva and our camelid friends have a way of projecting this. Consider your liability for farm visitors.
7. The only way to confirm rabies is to cut off the suspected animal's head, get a small slice of brain tissue, use specific stains and look for cellular Negri inclusions under the microscope. There is NO other test. If your county suspects rabies in your animal, they have the right to quarantine your animal at your farm, off your farm (at your cost) and sadly (if symptoms persist), to kill your animal. This latter issue is rare but it does happen. Most often, you are told to quarantine your animal on your property (14 to 30 days depending).
8. There are one-year rabies vaccines and three-year rabies vaccines (both under the IMRAB and RABVAC labels) from two different vaccine manufacturers. Each drug company makes their one and three year vaccines from the same specific company batch. The three-year lots are just tested for efficacy at three years and thus cost more due to the longer testing, time, etc. Thus, the three-year tests show that the vaccine works at three years so it can he labeled as such (RABVAC-3 or IMRAB-3).
9. Some states/counties with endemic wildlife rabies insist on rabies vaccination every single year. Many animal health experts feel that this is too frequent for alpacas/llamas. We prefer every three years. The principal reason for the yearly vaccination protocol is to insure that a large percentage of the animal population gets rabies immunizations.
10. There are blood antibodies that can be tested to show that the rabies vaccine protection remains. Several dog/cat studies show that rabies vaccine protection exists for at least five years after injection. Some states/counties will accept blood antibody results and others will not.
11. The use of the rabies vaccine (and every other veterinary drug) for alpacas/llamas is considered a legal "off label" use. Off label means that there is no legal documentation of efficacy. This does NOT mean that the vaccine/drug/treatment does not work; rather, it simply means that in the case of an adverse reaction or lack of protection, there is no legal recourse against the vaccine manufacturer and/or vet. This off-label descriptor is typically a legal issue, not necessarily a pharmacological concern.
12. Rabies vaccination is not just for protection of your pet. Rather, it is a public health issue, as people get rabies from rabid animals (zoonotic disease). This sounds strange, but your vet is actually licensed to protect the public by immunizing/treating animals. This is a legal issue and gets back to the reason why only licensed vets can verify that a rabies vaccine has been properly administered.

I suggest that you print this off, and discuss this with your local vet. He/she has the best perspective for protection of your animals (as well as you!) and, together you must make the decision that is best for your animals in YOUR area.

Simple Causes Behind Weight Loss in Your Llama: What Can You Do to Help?

By Erika Krauss, Reprinted from the GALA Newsletter, December 2007

How can I tell if my llama is losing weight? The first and most important thing to know about your llama’s health is how much should this animal weigh? This should be a question you ask about your animals when you first buy them. If, as a small-scale llama owner you do not own a scale, you can always ask a vet to weigh your animal in the future.

It is often difficult to check a llama's weight by sight because of the amount of wool coverage on the body. However, a simple and quick way to see if your animal is overweight is to check the angle of its backbone directly in front of the hips. When you first receive your animal, assuming it is a healthy weight, drape your hand, thumb on one side, four fingers on the other of the backbone in front of the croup. The angle made by those two opposing sides should be at least a 45 to 55 degree angle. The owner needs to account for each animal's specific body type, but if the angle is smaller or larger than that, the animal could be under or overweight. If you are still unsure about the animal's weight look at the chest: does it look full and jiggle when it walks? You can also feel for fat deposits in the lower end behind the armpit. If there are no fat deposits, then the animal is probably more underweight than your original assessment from the backbone test.

Cause of Underweight Animals

1. Underfeeding

In most of the northeast, up to six llamas can graze on a pasture of two acres, while the ratio of horses is only one animal to two acres. Llamas are known as the "wonder animal" for consuming the least amount of resources when it comes to surface area of pasture. However, this can make a severe generalization. This ratio is for an average size llama with average bodily needs. Get help from your local extension service to check the pasture quality, and have your hay tested every year. A llama's physical development may not end until age 4 or 5, so extra food and/or nutrients are needed in these critical years of growth. They will be mostly adding muscle and "filling out" at ages past 4. A llama older than 14 years old is susceptible to old age (an average lifespan of a llama being 20 years old), and older animals typically need some dietary supplements. Like any animal, it is difficult for llamas to assimilate nutrients without the proper vitamins. An essential way to keep all of your animals well-fed is by having a Ilama-specific loose mineral mix out for consumption at all times in their feeding area(s). As always, water is vital to their systems and if there are not adequate amounts of water for your llamas their health and weight will fail as a result.

Another time when llamas need extra food is if they are pregnant or nursing. While a dam's body is going through stages of providing for a fetus or cria, it needs the appropriate changes to diet. This information can be obtained from a local veterinarian or an accredited book such as Story's Guide to Raising Llamas or The Complete Alpaca Book. Always be ready for changing weather and have sufficient amounts of feed and water depending on the temperature, ventilation, humidity, precipitation and altitude of your area.

2. Age

As mentioned above, animals below or above their "prime" age can suffer if not fed appropriate amounts of food. While a cria or young llama is nursing, it needs to have extra food that is high in protein that will help the cria to grow. It is imperative that the dam has enough water to produce the amount of milk needed to feed the cria. If an owner notices that his/her young llama is not growing at a healthy rate (one-half to a pound per day in the first few weeks), consult a vet or try giving the dam extra food. If the cria is eating solid food and is not energetic, it may also be a sign that more food is needed.

Our geriatric llamas can have a few more problems in their old age than the juveniles. An older llama can have a hard time digesting or absorbing nutrients from its food. Sometimes they need more processed food, or grains with higher amounts of energy and vitamins, which can include things like beet pulp, oats, and alfalfa pellets.

Another problem commonly found in older animals is failing tooth structure. If your adult llama appears to not be chewing properly check for tooth decay or askew tooth erosion. Tooth problems can lead to problems grazing, chewing and digesting. A llama has three parts to its stomach. One stores food and allows it to be regurgitated and chewed again, which aids in digestion. If the balance of the body is thrown off, then digestion may not be complete within the body. What can result is not enough food or slow absorption of nutrients. An older animal may also be low in the hierarchy of a herd and it may be doubly difficult to obtain food because of the competition and tooth and/or mouth pain. Any age animal can always develop a tooth or jaw abscess that would inhibit eating and digestion. An overbite or under-bite may also prove to be problematic in some cases.

If you have an older llama that has problems with digestion and chewing her food thoroughly, mix a grain of one part alfalfa cubes, one part whole oats, and one part beet pulp and add hot water and let it sit for 15 minutes. This will create a mash that will be easily chewed by your geriatric friend.

3. Parasites

Underfeeding and age are common variables in a llama's health. Just as important are parasites. The kinds of parasites I will refer to in this article are intestinal parasites that live in the digestive path of the llama and consume the food the llama takes in. Parasites can live in young, old, underfed and overfed animals. Any animal that is exposed to a parasite of the digestive tract is susceptible to infestation. Most often, these parasites live with the llama and lay eggs that exit the animal with their feces onto the pasture. The way the parasites spread is when other llamas eat in the same area where the last animal defecated and bring the eggs or the young parasite into their body.

The sure signs of a parasite in the digestive tract are a bloated animal that seems to be eating the same amount or more than usual, but is gradually losing weight. (Bloating can be noted by sight or by how the animal moves, not by checking in front of the croup). If there is ever a suspicion that there are parasites in llamas, the easiest and quickest thing to do is to send a fresh fecal sample to the vet for analysis.

Animals on pasture that are moved a lot, housed with other species, or on pasture near a wilderness area should be treated for parasites with an oral or injectable worming medicine. The advantage of an oral worming medicine is that it targets the parasites in the digestive tract. An injectable worming shot targets parasites living outside of the digestive tract, and can be just as important.

More information is being studied that suggests targeted deworming among small ruminant herds, or only worming animals that show positive test results, may be desirable. Parasites can become resistant to wormers over time. There has also been some research that suggests worming medicine can be harmful to an array of good soil organisms on the pasture when the medication comes out of the body in the fecal matter.

Llamas that are uncomfortable or sick are not fun to be around. A healthful llama is a happy llama! Please watch for any changes in your llama's behavior or body condition to effectively assess health of the individual and the herd.

Quick Recap

1. To see if your animal is underweight, use a quick method of feeling with your hand in front of the croup on the animal's backbone. Look for more than a 50-degree angle.
2. If you have an underweight animal, look at the age, condition of feeding ground (pasture/nutrient content), hay quality, and if parasites are suspected, get a fresh fecal sample to the vet for analysis!
3. Things to keep in mind are to monitor for parasites regularly, and to not hesitate to supplement regular grass or hay feed with grains ranging from processed llama pellets to whole oats and beet pulp.

Some excellent resources:

• Storey’s Complete Guide to Llamas
• The Complete Alpaca Book by Eric Hoffman
• Robert J. Van Saun
• www.luresext.edu/goats/library/field/WellsCO5.pdf

The last article is based on goat and sheep parasites. When reading about other small ruminant species in texts, you must remember that some parasites are shared while others are not. The best information found is specific to the camelid family. Knowing how similar species relate to your camelids helps to expand ideas to what other farmers are dealing with when it comes to nutrition and pasture health.

A Whole Farm Approach to Parasite Management

By Karen Nicholson of Stepping Stone Farm Alpacas

Internal parasites are a part of most every livestock producer's farm. Regardless of whether they are pasture raised or in a confinement setting, livestock will be exposed to internal parasites at some time in their life. In the Northeast, and in other humid climates, parasites can be a major problem for small ruminants, such as alpacas, sheep and goats.

So why adopt an organic approach to parasite management? Chemical dewormers are losing their effectiveness, with parasites developing resistance to them at an alarming rate. There are some parts of the country where internal parasites have developed resistance to all commercially available dewormers without new ones being developed. In our area where Meningeal worm is a threat and there is widespread use of Ivermectin, parasites that were formerly managed with this drug have grown resistant to it. Resistance means that not all the worms are killed during deworming. The surviving worms pass that genetic resistance on to offspring.

The growing concern about the resistance of internal parasites to all classes of dewormers has caused people to look for alternatives. By looking at the whole farm as an interrelated system, it becomes apparent that there are parts of the system that can be managed to decrease internal parasites and their effects. This management whole farm approach not only postpones the day when chemical dewormers no longer work, but it also increases the overall health of the individual animal (and future herd), and it may even decrease costs.

It All Starts with Prevention and Management:

1. Healthy, properly conditioned animals – Nutrition plays a major role in how well alpacas are able to overcome the effects of internal parasites. Quality feed, fresh water, minerals, managing stress and monitoring for condition are essential. Check weights/body score and mucus membranes and observe the herd regularly to monitor condition.
2. Stocking Density – By maintaining a healthy stocking density you decrease the overall infectivity rate of the farm. It also allows you to have more areas (pastures, etc) that you can rest for longer, creating more 'clean' areas. To calculate the optimum stocking density, you'll find a good worksheet at www.sarahflackconsulting.com.
3. Quarantine – When an animal comes or returns to the farm, keep it with a buddy in a quarantine area for one month while monitoring their health and doing regular fecals. This can protect your herd (particularly the geriatric, cria. weak or pregnant/lactating females) from parasite overloads and other disease.
4. Pasture Rotation – There could be an entire article alone on this subject. If we begin with an understanding of the interrelationship between the animal, the plants it eats, and the soil on which those plants grow, then it will become clearer how parasites infect the animal and how they can be managed so as not to cause as many problems. Narrowing it down to two subjects, there are: rotation for the health of the grasses and soils, and rotation to work with the lifecycle of parasites.
• Lifecycle of parasites
– Although some parasite eggs can live in the soils year round without a host, many of the parasites we are dealing with go through up to a 21 day lifecycle outside the host. The infected manure is dropped, three days later the eggs hatch into larvae searching for a host (the alpaca), and most die by 21 days if a host does not ingest them. Consider wildlife where parasite loads generally do not cause disease and death in the host because, instinctively, wildlife are on the move. The parasites have no host if the animal is no longer where the manure (eggs/occysts) was dropped. The same principle applies to livestock. If we rotate our animals every 2-3 days to new pastures and do not put them back on that same pasture for a minimum of 21 days, we are significantly decreasing the numbers of larvae available to be ingested. Ideally, you want to size your pastures so that they eat it down to not less than 2" in 3 days (or even better, 12-24 hours) as most larvae live in the bottom 1-2" of grass.
• Health of Grasses and Soils – Healthy soil grows healthy plants. Healthy plants provide good nutrition to animals. Unhealthy soils also have fewer of the beneficial organisms (beetles, earthworms, nematophasous fungi, etc) that can kill parasites. Chemical dewormers also kill most of these organisms that are working for you. Test, monitor and fertilize your soils as necessary. Grasses - overgrazing (below 2”) damages pastures as that alpaca will continue to graze the most vigorous and productive plants in the pasture down very short, which will stress the root system of the plant, in turn reducing the productivity of that pasture. If this happens every year, several years in a row, it can greatly reduce the amount, quality and the diversity of plants the pasture will produce. Overgrazing also cuts down on the animal's efficiency and dry matter intake, resulting in poor performance.
5. Cleanliness – Keep clean barns and pastures. Scoop manure twice daily or as often as is practical, and pile it in the current active compost pile. Actively composting your manure by creating the proper carbon/nitrogen mix will heat up the manure to 135 degrees and kill pathogens. Removing manure often keeps the alpacas from stepping in it and dragging it all over and ingesting larvae. Larvae migrate from the manure up to 12 inches.
6. Animal Selection – Select breeding males that exhibit parasite resilience. Resilience is the ability of the host (camelid) to maintain health during a parasite challenge. In most livestock production, resilience is one of several traits that are being selected for. By monitoring and keeping good records, we can most often detect which animals almost never shed eggs regardless of the parasite load of the rest of the herd. Typically, 10-20% of animals will always be heavily parasitized. 10-20% will be lightly parasitized, and 60-80% will fall in between. Identifying these genetic lines and selecting for them in our breeding will improve the health of our herd and the future herd. For example: don't put sires into production from sires/dams that either always have parasite problems themselves, or always produce crias that have parasite problems. An example of an effective parasite control program can be found in TN. Dennis Onks of Highland Rim Experiment Station has not dewormed the adult cattle on the farm in eight years. They are dewormed at weaning and not again. They have never shown any signs of internal parasites and their condition is excellent. These animals are on a high plane of nutrition, have a low stress level and are strictly culled on production. Producers who add parasite susceptibility to their list of selection criteria find that in 2-3 years, they have greatly decreased the incidence of parasite problems in their herds.
7. Encouraging Hardiness – Too much of a good thing can actually work against the animal. Ideally, you want an animal that can retain health when faced with adversity.
8. Other – Grazing multiple species together or rotating them behind one another can be helpful, as they are a dead-end host for each other's parasites. Chickens and ducks will also consume some of the parasites. Consider planting herbal lays (weedy pastures) and high tannin forages for improved gut function.

Then moves to Monitoring and Treatment…

1. Fecal Monitoring – Testing and monitoring animals is crucial to determining the progress and success of your parasite management program and in determining which animals are resilient and which are not. The ultimate goal is for the animal to develop immunity or resilience to parasites. NOT to be parasite free.
• Observation is one method – identify which animals always keep condition, have firm beans, etc. regardless of stress or the performance of the rest of the herd.
• Fecal Testing is another method of monitoring, and aids in identifying which animals are resilient and which always carry heavier loads. Sometimes it can identify a problem much more quickly than observation. Once parasites have been identified in a fecal test, they can be monitored by additional tests for increased/decreased loads, significantly reducing the number of deworming treatments. Consider doing fecal testing on-farm as it can get expensive.
2. Strategic Deworming – Treatment should be the last resort — that includes alternative and pharmaceutical treatments. Careful fecal monitoring instead of conventional seasonal or routine deworming should increase resilience and decrease parasite resistance to the drugs. Treat the individual animal, not the whole herd. Proper dosing is also important. If you do not knock out the parasite, but only knock it down, you are encouraging adaptation and resistance to the drug. If your vet doesn't specialize in alpaca care, make sure he/she is up to date on proper treatment and dosages. Put crias in a pasture with low-level parasites to give them low dose exposure so that they can develop immunity. Transition animals slowly from winter hay feed to pastures to not upset the gut and to slowly introduce the animal to pasture parasites that survived the winter. Give probiotics at times of stress, immune challenge, immunizations, and gut challenge. Do not move animals to new pastures until 12-24 hours after deworming to allow enough time for parasites to be killed and eggs to be expelled.

Summary

Parasite overloads are a symptom that there is sickness within the farm. It is disease in individual animals, but also an indication of imbalance or a problem on the farm. While implementing all strategies can seem overwhelming, slow changes can make dramatic improvements in parasite levels and the overall performance or the herd. If we were to choose the most effective methods they might be:

• Prevention – good nutrition is essential, grazing management and selecting resilient dams/sires to improve crias.
• Early Observation – catch symptoms of disease or ill thrift early thru routine observation of the herd. Trust your gut instinct. Use fecal monitoring as a preventative and monitoring tool.
• Treatment – as the option or last resort, but certainly when the animal's health requires it.

Karen Nicholson has a herd of ten alpacas at Stepping Stone Farm Alpacas in Stowe. While the information shared is not meant to replace the protocol set up by your veterinarian, these methods are being successfully used with many different types of livestock, including camelids. Any comments or questions can be directed to: Karen@stowealpacas.com.

Thoughts on Deworming

By Kristy Brawn DVM
Reprinted from The Orgler, Wisconsin Organization of Llama Enthusiasts, February 2007

Parasite control has become a looming issue in our industry and ever-present questions at veterinary panel discussions. Parasite control programs vary based on the density of population (number of animals in a given area), the length of time that species has been on the same pastures (virgin pastures versus overgrazed yards), soil types (sandy soils are less conducive to parasite larvae/egg arrival than are heavy soils), parasites with other host species or parasites endemic to an area (meningeal worm and liver flukes) and "animal traffic" (a closed herd when there are no new animals and no movement versus a herd that shows, does outside breedings, "animal dealers," etc).

A few basic thumb rules:

1. Where there is grass, there are worms.
2. The more animals in an area, the higher your parasite exposure.
3. Coccidia become more of a concern the longer a species is in an area.
4. The more animals move on/off your farm, the more at risk you are for parasite infestation.
5. Formed stool does not mean your herd is parasite-free.
6. Fecal exams are an important management tool.
7. Use appropriate drug dosages--do not under-dose!
8. Proper doses and product rotation decreases the likelihood of resistance.

I hate to give a parasite control strategy for everyone to follow because it just won't fit every herd. If you have meningeal worm as a threat in your area, then your deworming must be more aggressive and timely and the importance of product rotation is far more important. If you have sandy soil or conditions are arid, you can get by with far fewer dewormings and a different rotation of products.

Generalities:

Meningeal threat - whitetail deer and snails/slugs are a part of the lifecycle of meningeal, so conditions conducive to snails/slugs increase your risk (heavy soils, standing water, leaf litter, down grasses, shady area, etc). Estimated 30-100 days for parasite to reach the spine.

Plan:

1. Deworm at 4-week intervals with Ivermectin products or 6-week intervals with Dectomax to kill parasite migration. Start with spring thaw and discontinue with 6" frost in winter or snow cover. Some plans have been suggested to use strategically timed doses of Avermectins (wet spring and fall) - this does not work in heavy infested areas - I did a test group for this strategy and had meningeal infections from April to December - decide if the value of the animal is greater than the risk of infection.
2. It is imperative to use a different family of dewormers 2-4 times per year to kill parasites not sensitive to the Avermectin class drug (Ivo and Decto) - Fendbendazole or Albendazole both also kill the larvae and are more effective against many of the internal parasites. The number of dewormings with these products varies based on stocking density and fecal exam results.

Non-meningeal areas - internal parasites are the biggest risk - see factors above regarding density and animal movement and combine with fecal exams to deter-mine appropriate scheduling.

Plan:

• Two weeks before pasture turn-out
• Mid-summer (July) End of grazing season
• Fecal exams periodically to monitor levels and need for dewormings

Liver Fluke threat: Geographical maps help to delineate the areas where flukes are a threat. Swampy areas, wet soil and water bodies increase the threat of flukes.

Plan:

Consider combined meningeal threat if appropriate and then 6-8 week dewormings either: 

• Ivomec Plus or Ivomec F (Ivermectin plus clorsulon)
• Valbazen (albendazole) 

Tapeworms: Valbazen

High doses of Fendbendazole

High doses of Pyrantel

Suggested drug dosages

There are minimum suggested dosages - certain parasite conditions may necessitate higher levels and newer research may also change suggested dosages.

Intestinal worms:

• Ivermectin products: 2cc/100# subQ (400mcg/kg)
• Dectomax: 2cc/100# subQ (400mcg/kg)
• Fendbendazole: Liquid - 10cc/100# orally (20mg/kg - note: this is 4x the label dose)
• Fenbendazole: Paste - 4x body weight (20mg/kg, - so a 1250# horse tube will deworm a 300# llama)
• Fenbendazole: Granules - 4x body-weight (20mg/kg - so a 500# equine packet deworms 125# of llama)
• Albendazole: Liquid - 8 cc/100# orally (20mg/kg or twice the label dose for cattle)
• Albendazole: Paste - 2x body weight (20mg/kg - so 500# cattle dose will deworm a 250# llama)

External parasites:

• Ivermectin and Dectomax as above
• Cyclence - pour on at cattle dose for lice and fly control

Other topicals as needed for specific parasites - ask your veterinarian for doses - in general if it is safe for use in lactating cattle, it will likely be safe for camelids, but check first!

Coccidia:

• Amprolium (Corid) at label dose for 7- 10 days
• Sulfaquinalones at label dose for 7-10 days
• Deccox at sheep dose used strategically for control
• E. mac - different drugs apply

Fecals, fecals, fecals!!!

The only way to know if you are doing a good job with your internal parasite control is to run routine fecal exams. Centrifuge concentration methods of fecal exam are needed to be sure we identify all possible eggs. Routine small animal flotations may miss many egg types and quantities - with the centrifuge method we not only identify the types of eggs present, but also get an estimate of eggs/gram and use this to assess your infection level. Composite tests can be run on groups - routine samples can be run anytime to assess infestation levels. Samples should be taken 10-14 days post-deworming to be sure that you are eliminating parasites. Note: if a sample is found positive on an individual animal, the whole group should be treated even if no other animals show symptoms.